Cyborgs and Society
“We
are all chimeras, theorized and fabricated hybrids of machine and organism; in
short, we are cyborgs.” - Donna Haraway
In an attempt to delve into the topic of
cyborgs, and their purpose within the realm of Japanese animation (anime), the
resourcefulness of futuristic expectation based on past and present happenings has
become increasingly pertinent. Throughout my research I discovered blurred
boundaries concerning the limitation of definitive markers setting the bar on
what it truly means to be a human being. Through the illustration of Japanese
animation, artists have been able to convey warnings of pressing issues,
especially with regard to futuristic foretelling of cybernetic organic beings,
cyborgs.
(Motoko from Ghost in the Shell - image from tumblr.com)
Within the works of Donna Haraway,
notable author and well-informed cyborgologist, an understanding of human
purpose began. In one of her most widely received essays Haraway recounts that,
“My cyborg myth is about transgressed boundaries, potent fusions, and dangerous
possibilities which progressive people might explore as one part of needed
political work”. Haraway felt that her expression of futuristic foretelling was
an explanation of the state of being human. While she often applied her logic
to a comparison between the embodiment of what it felt like to be a modern day
women within a patriarchal society, she also philosophized theories pertaining
solely to the evolutionary future ahead, as represented through the state of
losing part of our humanity and embracing cold mental bodies as a form of
elongating life. Haraway explains, “Our bodies, ourselves; bodies are maps of
power and identity. Cyborgs are no exception. A cyborg body is not innocent; it
was not born in a garden; it does not seek unitary identity, and so generate antagonistic
dualisms without end (or until the world ends).” (Haraway, 1991)
Recent research studies have put an
emphasis on the integration of robotic engineering into present day society,
through means such as healthcare and hard labor. The importance of emotional
expression and human interaction are currently being studied in order to
determine their place among newly developed technologies (Walters, 2008). During
a study put forth by the University of Auckland, located in the heart of New
Zealand, participants were introduced to the next generation of healthcare
workers: Peoplebots. The purpose behind the study was an exploration of which
physical appearance should be put forth in order for patients to feel
comfortable having a robotic machine replace a human being (Subbaraman, 2013).
The Peoplebots were to interact with patients as they took their blood
pressure. Participants of the study were presented with three variables of
Peoplebots, the first was outfitted in a synthetic skin-like covering, and was capable
of displaying expressions, the second was a faceless, expressionless robot with
a plain, silver covering over its face-fame, and the third consisted of a
robotic face, with exposed wiring and internal hardware (Subbaraman, 2013). The
thirty participants had their blood pressure taken by each of the three variety
types of Peoplebots, and were then asked to report their comfort level with
respect to trustworthiness and likeableness towards the Peoplebots (Subbaraman,
2013). The results stated that participants felt they could trust the third
robot that looked most like a machine, but preferred the first robot, as it
seemed more human in nature and appearance. Within participant responses, a
trend of fear and anxiety towards the second, faceless, expressionless robot
left the researchers with the impression that this form of Peoplebot had
entered The Uncanny Valley. With regard to cyborgs and their likeness to human
beings, in cases were the organic portion of their being does not lie within
recognizable traits, it would appear that the comfort and acceptance of other
is highly influential in their physical appearance. The eerie likeness of
developing robotics to existing human beings is astounding, American poet Diane
Ackerman was once quoted as saying, “Artificial intelligence is growing up
fast, as are robots whose facial expressions can elicit empathy and make your
mirror neurons quiver.”
(Shinji from Neon Genesis Evangelion - image from tumblr.com)
An essay drafted by Andrew Wells
Garner was published within a novel dedicated to the philosophical backing of cyborgology,
and within this work Garner presents a shocking reality concerning evolutionary
theories as illustrated through Japanese versus American animation. Garner was
quoted as saying, “Biological evolution has taken a very long time; meanwhile
technological development is steadily growing up at a faster pace.” (Garner,
2010). He explains that while Americans focus on the biologically based
evolution as demonstrated through genetic mutation, Japanese animators are
presenting their case on the issue of possible technological evolution. Garner
explains that American pop culture references, found in such works as X-Men,
demonstrates an underlying belief that the next phase of human evolution will
encompass biological expansion in the form of genetic mutation (Garner, 2010).
This idea is not shared by Japanese theorist, as displayed with anime creations
such as Ghost in the Shell, Neon Genesis Evangelion, and Cyborg 009. These shows/films instead
demonstrate the fear that human advancement will take on the form of
technological improvement via cybernetic implants and external hard-drives, a
reference to the cybernetic brains used in Ghost
in the Shell to explain the ability of massive logical comprehension
(Garner, 2010). Garner goes on to explain that Japanese anime/manga attempt to
predict and conceptualize future events with worries in mind such as social
exclusion and alienation (Garner, 2010). Garner believes in the possibility of
a ‘posthuman future’ consisting of beings much like that of the ‘child’ produced
by Motoko and the Puppet Master from Ghost
in the Shell (1995).
This idea also touches upon questions provoked
within the film Ghost in the Shell (1995),
wherein the main protagonist, Motoko, questions her identity, humanity, and
gender. Within many examples of animation based cyborg females often exhibit
signs of being incapable of reproduction, that is with the exception of Android
18 of Dragon Ball Z., who withheld
her capabilities of reproduction as exhibited by the existence of her daughter.
At one point during the film, Motoko jokes about her lack of reproductive
capabilities, but then proceeds to question her self-awareness, is she even a
woman if she is incapable of reproduction? Why is she represented through her
cybernetic body as an assigned gender, when there is no physical variance
between her and other cyborgs manufactured by the same industry? Donna Haraway stated in her notorious essay
that. “There is nothing about being ‘female’ that naturally binds women. There
is not even such a state as ‘being’ female, itself a highly complex category
constructed in contested sexual scientific discourses and other social
practices.” (Haraway, 1991).
(Donna Hardaway - photobucket.com)
Within the philosophical teachings of
Arthur Koestler, author of Ghost in the
Machine, the meaning of life and existence are described as being
recognizable through the value of life itself. Upon the discovery of death, a
person’s sense of being is forever changed as at that very moment their
proverbial hourglass begins to dwindle. Suddenly, they are struck with a sense
of purpose as they are fighting against time in order to make their mark upon
the life they lead. Within the 1979 film Galaxy
Express 999 the audience is exposed to a futuristic storyline, focused on
the pursuit of immortality via cybernetic body replacement. This film also
presented an excellent depiction of alienation and exclusion, a theorem
purposed by Andrew Wells Garner, as the lower class citizens are withheld from
the expensive processes required for immorality and longevity, and in many
cases 100% organic humans are seen as lower life forms, and treated as such.
During a flashback scene the audience learns that the young protagonist and his
mother were pursued by cyborg huntsman, in a fashion similar to that of an
English foxhunt.
Professor of Psychiatry at Yale University,
Richard Lifton, took the teachings of Koestler into consideration and produced
a publication in the 1960’s that suggested that beings were a flaw in
evolution. This striking claim was reinforced through the theory od dualism, a
belief that there exist two kind’s of foundations concerning self – mental and
physical (body); the mental can exist outside of the body, while the body
cannot think for itself (Lifton, 1968). Lifton believed that humanity’s
uniqueness and sense of purpose lied within the ticking time clock as set forth
by the deadline of death. Lifton explained that, “The discovery [of death]
originates in the new brain, the refusal [to accept death] in the old”, he
described this as the turning point at which time a human being is born again
into existence and his or her time begins to dwindle (Lifton, 1968).
French philosopher and mathematician,
Rene Descartes, once said, “I think, therefore I am.” Descartes dedicated much
of his life to the study and understanding of life itself, and it is through
his comprehension of purpose that a deeper understanding of the hidden message
with Mamoru Oshii’s Kokaku Kidotai (Ghost in the Shell), an excellent
representation of human evolution through cyborg technology. Ghost in the Shell
centers on Major Kusanagi Motoko, a female cyborg composed almost entirely of
cybernetic engineering, the only remaining part of her being is her organic
brain. While Motoko is a self-recognizing, independently thinking being, she
feels internal conflict concerning her sense of purpose, meaning, and
belonging. Motoko also suffers from a lack of self-identity as she has been
implanted into a body that resembles a human female, yet she lacks any gender
designated capabilities that would distinguish her from her male counterparts. In
a film review by well-known film critique Roger Ebert, Ebert remarked about the
internalized confliction within the film in saying,” There is much moody talk
in the movie about what it is to be human. All of the information accumulated
in a lifetime, we learn, is less than a drop in the ocean of information, and
perhaps a creature that can collect more information and hold onto it longer is
. . . more than human” (Ebert, 1996). During the film viewers meet such a creature,
nicknamed the Puppet Master, this organic form of artificial intelligence
(A.I.) breaches the boundaries of the Information Ocean and attempts to free
himself from its captivity. Towards the end of the film, viewers observe lost
soul, Motoko and headstrong A.I., Puppet Master breakdown the final barrier
confining them, in an act that demonstrates technological reproduction.
An article recently published in The New
York Times takes on a modern day approach to futuristic prediction as hashed
out between three experts within their respective fields. The participants
included Evgeny Morozov, the editor of The New Republic, Susan Greenfield PhD,
professor of pharmacology at Oxford University, and Maria Popova, an M.I.T.
Futures of Entertainment Fellow. The interviewer put forth one simple question
to the eagerly awaiting ears of his audience, “Are we becoming cyborgs?”. In
light of recent years, a vast majority of society has turned to social media
for their interpersonal connections, disregarding social norms and taking on a
new format of socially acceptable communication methods, including online
social media, text messaging, email, and other technological inventions of the
twenty-first century. Greenfield spoke of this trend of rapid replacement as
she said, “What concerns me is not the technology in itself, but the degree to
which it has become a lifestyle in and of itself rather than a means to
improving your life.” (Schmemann, 2012). In agreement with Greenfield, Maria
Popova took on a scientific perspective and pondered over the psychological
impact of technological reliance. Popova explained that, “So much of the fear
is that rather than enhancing human cognition, they’re beginning to displace or
replace meaningful human interactions.” (Schmemann, 2012). The integration of
cyborgs, as explained by the three interviewees, will likely result from the
steady increase of human reliance on technological means, with respect to all
aspects of life, ranging from healthcare to industry, and everywhere in between.
This concept comes to life through a study of human history, Morozov explained
that, “If you trace the history of mankind, our evolution has been mediated by
technology, and without technology it’s not really obvious where we would be.
So I think we have always been cyborgs in this sense.” (Schmemann, 2012).
What is a cyborg anyway? Haraway suggests that they are a fictitious
representation of any repressed minority, while Schmemann and his interviewees
believe it is an expansion upon human social interaction and that social media is
the gateway into a new era of technology based lifestyles. As for Andrew Wells
Garner, he interprets their meaning as being a warning sign of impending
damnation, and the researchers of the University of Auckland see them as a tool
of betterment of human capabilities. Perhaps, upon reflection, they are a
multitude of symbolic meaning, designed to entice and provoke the imagination
and further the comprehension of the direction human life may take on as we
proceed through the ages.
(Android 18 from Dragon Ball Z - image from tumblr.com)
References
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H. (Director). (1995). Neon Genesis
Evangelion. Japan: Tatsunoko Production
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Ebert,
R. (1996). Ghost in the Shell Movie
Review. Rogerebert.com.
Garner, A. (2010). It’s the End of the Species as We Know It,
and I Feel Anxious. In
Steiff,
J., and Tamplin, T., Anime and
Philosophy: Wide Eyed Wonder. Chicago,
IL:
Open Court. Print.
Haraway,
D. (1991). A Cyborg Manifesto: Science,
Technology, and Socialist-Feminism
in
the Late Twentieth Century.
In D. Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs, and
Women:
The Reinvention of Nature. New York; Routledge. 149-181.
Koestler,
A. (1968). The Ghost in the Machine. New York: Macmillian. Print.
Lifton,
R. (1968). Man As Mistake. The New
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Mano,
R. (Director). (2008).Gunslinger Girl.
Japan: Artland.
Nishio,
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Japan: Toei Animation.
Oshii,
M. (Director). (1995). Ghost in the Shell.
Japan: Shochiku.
Schmemann,
S. (2012). Are We Becoming Cyborgs?.
The New York Times.
Subbaraman, N. (2013). Humans Tend to Trust Robots That Look Human.
NBC News.
Walters, M., Dag S., Kerstein D., Te
Boekhorst R., and Koay, K. (2008). Avoiding
the
Uncanny Valley: Robot Appearance,
Personality and Consistency of Behavior in
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Web. 18 Nov. 2014.
